Los inicios de la bacteriología en Buenos Aires en el siglo XIX: transformaciones institucionales y políticas sanitarias / [The beginnings of bacteriology in Buenos Aires in the 19th century: institutional transformations and health policies]

En este trabajo se analiza el comienzo de la incorporación de la bacteriología a la política sanitaria en Buenos Aires durante las décadas de 1880 y 1890, y las transformaciones que este proceso implicó en el plano institucional y de la intervención estatal. En particular, indagamos en estos cambios a través de la creación y los primeros años de funcionamiento de dos espacios orientados a la producción y enseñanza de conocimientos bacteriológicos: el Laboratorio Bacte-riológico de la Asistencia Pública y la Sección Bacteriológica de la Oficina Sanitaria Argentina. A través del estudio de las trayectorias de los creadores y primeros integrantes de ambos espacios, un grupo de la élite médica agrupada en el Círculo Médico Argentino, y de los conocimientos que circularon al interior de ambas instituciones, reconstruimos el inicio del desarrollo de la bacteriología en Argentina y el modo en que se incorporó a las agendas gubernamentales. (AU)

La respuesta a las epidemias en los siglos XIX y XX: un estudio comparado entre Portugal y Chile / [The response to epidemics in the 19th and 20th centuries: a comparative study between Portugal and Chile]

En tiempos de crisis sanitarias como las que ocurrieron en Portugal en 1854-56, 1899 y 1918, especialmente en Oporto, donde el cólera morbus, la peste bubónica, el tifo exantemático, la gripe neumónica y la viruela mataron a un alto porcentaje de la población, las imágenes de las epidemias en los periódicos y en la literatura científica de la época nos permiten conocer el estado de la ciencia y las respuestas de las autoridades para controlar su difusión. La comparación de estas epidemias en Portugal con las de Chile —cólera 1886-88, peste en Valparaíso y Iquique en 1903 y gripe en 1918— en la bibliografía y en algunos periódicos de época nos muestran las semejanzas del conocimiento científico y de las medidas sanitarias aplicadas. Esto nos confirma la circulación del conocimiento médico y farmacéutico y el alto nivel de especialización de los médicos y científicos. (AU)

Locating hygienic medicine within the intellectual history of hygiene: cases of E. W. Lane and T. R. Allinson.

Nineteenth century hygiene might be a confusing concept. On the one hand, the concept of hygiene was gradually becoming an important concept that was focused on cleanliness and used interchangeably with sanitation. On the other hand, the classical notions of hygiene rooted in the Hippocratic teachings remained influential. This study is about two attempts to newly theorise such a confusing concept of hygiene in the second half of the century by Edward. W. Lane and Thomas R. Allinson. Their works, standing on the borders of self-help medical advice and theoretical treatises on medical philosophies, were not exactly scholarly ones, but their medical thoughts - conceptualised as hygienic medicine - show a characteristically holistic medical view of hygiene, a nineteenth-century version of the reinterpretation of the nature cure philosophy and vitalism. However, the aim of this study is to properly locate their conceptualisations of hygienic medicine within the historical context of the second half of the nineteenth century rather than to simply introduce the medical ideas in their books. Their views of hygiene were distinguished not only from the contemporary sanitary approach but also from similar attempts by contemporary orthodox and unorthodox medical doctors. Through a chronological analysis of changes in the concept of hygiene and a comparative analysis of these two authors' and other medical professionals' views of hygiene, this paper aims to help understand the complicated picture of nineteenth-century hygiene, particularly during the second half of the century, from the perspective of medical holism and reductionism.

From Dresden to the world: images of the German Hygiene Museum's relations with Latin America, 1911-1933.

As of the nineteenth century, the number of world fairs and hygiene exhibitions grew significantly. This phenomenon was linked to the experience of modernity and the emergence of bacteriology, when different cities were sanitized with the aim of combating urban diseases and epidemics. For the purpose of sanitary education and hygiene propaganda, many objects and pictures were displayed in hygiene exhibitions and museums, such as the International Hygiene Exhibition of 1911 and the German Hygiene Museum, both in Dresden. The goal of this article is to analyze a chapter of the international history of health through images that portray the connections between the German Hygiene Museum and Latin American countries between 1911 and 1933.

The Spread of Hygiene Concepts and the Making of Public Health Discourse in Modern East Asia.

If public health can be defined as "all activities to ensure universal medical use of the people and protect and promote health," it can be said that public health emerged in the process of developing the concept of hygiene in East Asia. While traditional hygiene emphasized individual curing and longevity, modern hygiene was the state in charge of individual body and discipline. East Asian countries had to practice modern tasks in the field of hygiene and medical care in line with the construction of modern countries, and it was considered legitimate for modern countries to intervene in individual bodies. As the demand for modern national construction became stronger, interest in public health rather than personal hygiene increased. In East Asia, a new interpretation of the concept of hygiene began in Japan. Sensai Nagayo(1838-1902) newly defined the concept of 'sanitation' to justify the physical intervention of the modern state in Meiji period. The concept of 'public health' began to be used in earnest in 1890, when Ogai Mori(1862-1922) translated Western-style health protection measures for the public as public health. Since then, public health has evolved into a universal social discourse in Japan. Japan's public health expanded to colonial Joseon, Taiwan, and China. Japan's victory in the Sino-Japanese War led East Asian countries to believe that hygiene was the root of the Japanese nation's power. In the early 20th century, the government of the Republic of China began to imitate the case of Japan while promoting modern education reform and institutional reform. Japanese-style 'public health' was transplanted into various hygiene laws and sanitary equipment. In Korea, modern hygiene was introduced and spread from the end of the 19th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the concept of 'public health' in Japan was mainly spreading. Public health in Japan was vaguely defined as an activity to protect and promote the health of the people, but in practice, it was focused on improving quarantine and environmental infrastructure. In response, the concept of American-style public health, which values prevention and treatment at the same time, has already begun to emerge under the Japanese colonial rule. In East Asia in the 1920s and 1930s, Japanese-style public health and American-style public health discourse competed, and measures to solve medical inequality were discussed in earnest. Interestingly, in common in East Asian countries, Actual Medical Expenses Campaigns to improve medical access at low cost and social medicine to universally provide prevention and treatment to the people have drawn attention. This was also a phenomenon caused by intensifying medical inequality as rapid urbanization and industrialization progressed in East Asian countries in the first half of the 20th century. Although it was impossible to resolve social contradictions or move toward fundamental reform of the national medical system due to the nature of the private movement, the actual medical movement further imprinted the need for public health care in the country and society. Social medicine studied the effects and relationships of the social environment on diseases and health, and studied ways to promote public health by using preventive medicine and therapeutic medicine. If social medicine was supported by state power, it was possible to go forward with practice such as State Medicine like China, otherwise it would only be a civilian movement such as the People's Health Movement, as in colonial Korea. Liberation and the Korean War were a dramatic turning point in American-style health that led to Japanese-style hygiene. Immediately after Liberation, there was a discussion between the left and right camps over medical nationalization to enhance the publicity of medical care. The medical community was sympathetic to the nationalization of medical care, but due to the lack of medical personnel and financial resources, specific alternatives could not be proposed. As American-style health studies gradually expanded their influence after the Korean War, American-style public health, which emphasized prevention and treatment activities, became established, and efforts were made to establish a health center system.

Deconstrucción y cristalización del conocimiento ancestral femenino entorno al lavado de manos como un fenómeno histórico / Deconstruction and crystallization of women's ancestral knowledge about hand washing as a historical phenomenon

Deconstruir y cristalizar el conocimiento ancestral presente en los capitales social y cultural de las mujeres en el lavado de manos y la implicación de este conocimiento en el cuidado profesional actual por parte de profesionales de enfermería [Fragmento de texto] (AU)

De la Higiene a la Salud pública. Apuntes para la historia / From Hygiene to Public Health. Notes for history

La Higiene ha sido motivo de preocupación para el hombre desde la más remota antigüedad, focalizándose en las enfermedades infecciosas, que fueron siempre un verdadero azote para el ser humano. Sólo en los últimos siglos ha derivado en la moderna Salud Pública, al incorporar los programas frente al resto de patologías e incorporar elementos de desarrollo y promoción de la salud. En la edad antigua, destacan las figuras de Moisés (siglo XIV a. de C.), Licurgo (siglo VII a C) e Hipócrates (siglo V a. de C.) que, desde distintas perspectivas, fueron desarrollando la Higiene y contribuyeron a su avance. El Imperio Romano supo incorporar el conocimiento de todas las naciones conquistadas, por lo que conoció un esplendor nunca visto en materia de organización social y sanitaria que. Sin embargo, sufrió un serio retroceso en el 313 de nuestra era con el Edicto de Milán y la visión resignada de la enfermedad y de la muerte que aportaba el cristianismo. La Edad Media, supone un largo periodo de oscurantismo, donde prácticas como la quiromancia, la influencia de los astros o las panaceas, entre otras, estuvieron muy arraigadas en la sociedad de la época. La invasión musulmana, aportó de nuevo a España un gran desarrollo de la Higiene y de las ciencias, al confluir en ella el saber grecolatino, hebreo y oriental. Es un periodo de terribles epidemias, como las de lepra y la de la peste de 1346, en la que falleció alrededor de la cuarta parte de la población de Europa. El descubrimiento de América supuso un incremento extraordinario del comercio y de los viajes, y la invención de la imprenta permitió una gran difusión del conocimiento. Al principio de la Edad Moderna, el Renacimiento supone un periodo brillante en la historia de España, con gran desarrollo de las ciencias y de la Medicina, la cual experimenta grandes avances en la Anatomía, al tiempo que Fracastoro funda la Epidemiología moderna.(AU)

Hygiene has been a matter of concern for mankind since ancient times, with its focus mainly on infectious diseases, which have always been a true scourge for human beings. Only in recent centuries has it derived in modern Public Health, by incorporating programs against other pathologies and incorporating elements of development and health promotion In ancient times, the figures of Moses (14th century BC), Licurgo (4th century BC) and Hippocrates (5th century BC) stand out, who, from different perspectives, developed the hygiene and contributed to its advancement. The Roman Empire knew how to incorpórate the knowledge of all the conquered nations, and as a consequence knew a splendor never seen before in terms of social and healthorganization. However, it suffered a serious setback in 313 AD. C. with the Edict of Milan and Christianity’s compliant view of illness and death. The Middle Ages, supposes a long period of obscurantism, where practices such as palmistry, the influence of the stars or panaceasamong others, were deeply rooted in the society of the time. The Muslim invasion once again brought to Spain a great development of hygiene and science, as Greco-Latin, Hebrew and Oriental knowledge converged in it. It is a period of terrible epidemics, such as leprosy and the plague of 1346, in which around a quarter of the population of Europe died. The discovery of America meant an extraordinary increase in trade and travel, and the invention of the printing press allowed for a great spread of knowledge. At the beginning of the Modern Age, the Renaissance represents a brilliant period in the history of Spain, with great development ofscience and Medicine, which experienced great advances in anatomy, at the time that Fracastoro founded modern epidemiology. Some private hygiene works are published, only intended for high society or the nobility. The 17th and 18th centuries brought exceptional progress to the medical sciences.(AU)

Cuidados higiênicos à mulher no ciclo gravídico-puerperal na década de 1920 / Cuidados higiénicos a la mujer en el embarazo y posparto en la década1920 / Hygienic care for women in the gravid-puerperal cycle in the decade of 1920

Objective: describe the manuals and their authors and to discuss, analytically, thenursing care culture for the pregnancy-puerperal cycle for the training of nurses.Methodology: historical approach, by the microanalysis strategy, with documents locatedin Rio de Janeiro and literature of adherence. Results: identified manual "Course ofNurses" (1920) and "Book of Nurse and Nurse (1928)" and four records published in thewritten and illustrated press. Discussion: the military medical influence was identified.The care prescribed in the manuals revealed that they were aimed at women in thegestational - puerperal state, focused on biological needs with an emphasis on hygiene.Final thoughts: Knowing the culture of care for women in the pregnancy-puerperal cycleis indicative of how and why care in the present time for women, sometimes, do notdirectly and objectively attend to the expected, possibly due to inheritance left from past.(AU)

Objetivo: describir los libros y sus autores y discutir analíticamente la cultura delos cuidados de enfermería relacionados con el embarazo y el parto para la formación deenfermeras. Metodología: aproximación histórica, por la estrategia de microanálisis,documentos que se encuentran en Río de Janeiro y la literatura adherencia. Resultados:manual identificado "Curso enfermeras" (1920) y "libro Enfermera y (1928)" y cuatroregistros revelados en la prensa escrita e ilustrada. Discusión: identificado médicainfluencia militar. El tratamiento prescrito en los manuales que se muestran estándirigidos a mujeres en estado de gestación - puerperales, orientado a las necesidadesbiológicas con énfasis en la higiene. Consideraciones finales: el conocimiento de lacultura de cuidado para las mujeres en embarazo y el parto aporta evidencia de cómo ypor qué la atención en los tiempos modernos para las mujeres a veces no cumplen directay objetiva era de esperar, debido posiblemente a la herencia dejada el pasado.(AU)

Objetivo: descrever os manuais e os respectivos autores e discutir, analiticamente,a cultura dos cuidados de enfermagem destinados ao ciclo gravídico-puerperal para aformação das enfermeiras. Metodologia: abordagem histórica, pela estratégia damicroanálise, com documentos localizados no Rio de Janeiro e literatura de aderência.Resultados: identificados manuais “Curso de Enfermeiros” (1920) e “Livro doEnfermeiro e da Enfermeira (1928)” e quatro registros veiculados na imprensa escrita eilustrada. Discussão: identificado a influência militar médica. Os cuidados prescritos nosmanuais revelaram estarem direcionados às mulheres em estado gestacional – puerperal,voltados às necessidades biológicas com ênfase na higiene. Considerações finais:71Cultura de los Cuidados. 1º Cuatrimestre 2022. Año XXVI. nº 62Conhecer a cultura dos cuidados destinados às mulheres no ciclo gravídico-puerperal trazindícios de como e porque cuidados em tempos atuais destinados as mulheres, às vezes,não atendem de forma direta e objetiva o esperado, em virtude, possivelmente, de herançadeixada do passado.(AU)

Catharine Beecher and the Mechanical Body: Physiology, Evangelism, and American Social Reform from the Antebellum Period to the Gilded Age.

From the mid-nineteenth century to the Gilded Age, Catharine Beecher and other American social reformers combined natural theology and evangelism to instruct their audiences how to lead healthy, virtuous, and happy lives. Worried about the consequences of urbanization, industrialization, unstable sexual and gender roles, and immigration, these "Christian physiologists" provided prescriptive scientific advice for hygiene and personal conduct based on the traditional norms of white, middle-class, Protestant domesticity. According to Beecher and her counterparts, the biosocial reproduction of ideal American households promised to reverse the degeneration of men and women across the country and to ensure the long-term vitality of their children. Using evidence from Beecher, Harriet Beecher Stowe, Charlotte Perkins Gilman, and other nineteenth-century writers, I investigate the methods and aims of Christian physiology along with its relationships to natural theology, Darwinian feminism, and other reform movements. I also analyze how Beecher and her successors employed concepts including the machine, the tissue, the cell, and the germ to justify their conclusions about the optimal structure and functions of American society. Overall, I demonstrate how these actors leveraged the body and the family as mechanisms to produce healthy parents, children, and communities for an ailing nation.

Covid-19 y gripe de 1918-1919: paralelos históricos, preguntas y respuestas / Covid-19 and the 1918-1919 influenza: historical parallels, questions and answers

Resumen El desarrollo de la pandemia de la covid-19 ha motivado un renovado interés por la gripe de 1918-1919 para buscar elementos que facilitaran la comprensión de la experiencia presente, pero también como oportunidad para reevaluar la grave crisis sanitaria del siglo XX a la luz de lo que estamos viviendo. En este contexto y con ese objetivo se inserta esta reflexión histórica sobre estos dos fenómenos pandémicos, que muestra los paralelismos existentes y la necesidad de una toma de conciencia de que nuestro modelo de sociedad está en crisis y se requiere una transformación profunda.

Abstract The rise of the covid-19 pandemic has led to renewed interest in the 1918-1919 influenza in search of aspects that might help us understand the current situation, but also as an opportunity to re-evaluate the serious twentieth-century health crisis in light of what we are experiencing now. In this context and with that goal, this historical reflection shows the parallels that exist and the need for a realization that our model of society is undergoing a crisis and requires profound transformation.

[Covid-19 and the 1918-1919 influenza: historical parallels, questions and answers]. / Covid-19 y gripe de 1918-1919: paralelos históricos, preguntas y respuestas.

The rise of the covid-19 pandemic has led to renewed interest in the 1918-1919 influenza in search of aspects that might help us understand the current situation, but also as an opportunity to re-evaluate the serious twentieth-century health crisis in light of what we are experiencing now. In this context and with that goal, this historical reflection shows the parallels that exist and the need for a realization that our model of society is undergoing a crisis and requires profound transformation.

El desarrollo de la pandemia de la covid-19 ha motivado un renovado interés por la gripe de 1918-1919 para buscar elementos que facilitaran la comprensión de la experiencia presente, pero también como oportunidad para reevaluar la grave crisis sanitaria del siglo XX a la luz de lo que estamos viviendo. En este contexto y con ese objetivo se inserta esta reflexión histórica sobre estos dos fenómenos pandémicos, que muestra los paralelismos existentes y la necesidad de una toma de conciencia de que nuestro modelo de sociedad está en crisis y se requiere una transformación profunda.

Nursing Experts, Hygienic Modernity, and Nation Building: The Case of Nursing in Ethiopia in the Post-Colonial Era.

This is a tale in three parts. It begins with an exploration of the story of Princess Tsahai, daughter of Haile Selassie, and the highly successful British campaign led by suffragette E. Sylvia Pankhurst to bring British-style nursing and medicine to Ethiopia in the 1940s and 1950s. Second, it examines the role of foreign women, most notably Swedish missionary nurses, in building health services and nursing capacity in the country. Finally, it examines the way in which nursing brought together gendered notions of expertise and geopolitical pressures to redefine expectations for Ethiopian women as citizens of the new nation-state.

[Environmental Care in Hospitals: Hygiene and Feminine Atmospheric Work]. / Umweltfürsorge im Krankenhaus: Hygienische Sauberkeit und die feminisierte Arbeit an der Atmosphäre.

Cleaning the floor, stripping the bed, arranging a bouquet of flowers-such tasks are essential to keeping a hospital room clean and creating a pleasant atmosphere. They usually fall under the purview of female* nurses, cleaning staff and housekeepers. In everyday hospital life, the demands for hygienic cleanliness commingle with the imperatives of economization, marketing logic, and attention to the affective and emotional needs of the actors in these rooms. Although the standards of clinical hygiene are based on medical knowledge, the division of labor and the demands for cleanliness at various hierarchical levels also reveal gendered and partly racialized ideas that point beyond the clinical context. This blending of imperatives in the hospital environment invites deeper consideration of the history of bacteriology: The logic and language of defense against infection in science and everyday life is also interwoven with social markers of difference.Drawing on the findings of an ethnography on cleanliness and cleaning work in hospitals, as well as a history of knowledge approach, the article links the question of (feminized) care for the environment with the question of the atmosphere of clinical rooms. In what ways, and to what effect, does scientific knowledge about medical hygiene also carry with it cultural and aesthetic perceptions of beautiful and pleasant cleanliness that reveal feminine connotations rooted in the nineteenth century?

Florence Nightingale e a arte de enfermagem: texto e contexto da Inglaterra Vitoriana / Florence Nightingale y el arte de la enfermería: texto y contexto de la Inglaterra Victoriana / Florence Nightingale and the art of nursing: text and context of Victorian England

Resumo Objetivo refletir sobre a figura pública de Florence Nightingale, suas realizações, Reforma Sanitária e a criação da Escola de Enfermeiras, e compreender o nascimento da enfermagem como profissão. Método partiu-se da literatura de um quadro das pressões sociais que agiam sobre o comportamento individual de Florence Nightingale e dos marcos divisórios aparentes, que entendemos como a densidade das relações sócio-históricas, e o seu tempo social. Análise sócio-histórica da história de vida de Florence Nightingale e da literatura social de Charles Dickens. O marco temporal compreendeu da promulgação da New Poor Law (1.834) à revogação (1.601). Resultados Florence Nightingale foi uma mulher adiante do seu tempo que, contrariando as teorias do Darwinismo social de sua época, criou a profissão da enfermeira, e produziu uma clivagem na profissão definindo-a como ciência e arte. Conclusão e implicações para a enfermagem ao criar a figura emblemática da Dama da Lâmpada, Florence Nightingale gravou no cuidado de enfermagem, o zelo, o desvelo e a compaixão, aqui entendida como empatia e piedade com o sofrimento do outro acompanhada do desejo de minorá-lo, uma participação espiritual na dor do outro.

Resumen Objetivo reflexionar sobre la figura pública de Florence Nightingale, sus logros, Reforma Sanitaria y la creación de la Escuela de Enfermeras, y comprender el nacimiento de la enfermería como profesión. Método se partió de la literatura de un cuadro de las presiones sociales sobre el comportamiento individual de Florence Nightingale y de los marcos divisorios aparentes que se entiende como la densidad de las relaciones socio histórico y su tiempo social. Análisis socio histórico de la historia de vida de Florence Nightingale y de la literatura social de Charles Dickens. El marco temporal se comprendió entre la promulgación del New Poor Law en 1834 y su revocación promulgada en 1601. Resultados Florence Nightingale fue una mujer adelante a su tiempo que, contrariando las teorías del Darwinismo social de su época, creó la profesión de enfermera, y produjo una mirada embrionaria en la profesión definiéndola como ciencia y arte. Conclusión e implicaciones para la enfermería al crear la figura emblemática de la Dama de la Lámpara, Florence Nightingale registró en el cuidado de enfermería, el celo, el cuidado y la compasión, entendido aquí como empatía y piedad con el sufrimiento del otro acompañado del deseo de una disminución, una participación espiritual en el dolor del otro.

Abstract Objective to reflect on Florence Nightingale's public figure, her achievements, Health Care Reform and the creation of the School for Nurses, and understand the birth of nursing as a profession. Method a framework of the social pressures acting on Florence Nightingale's individual behavior and the apparent dividing marks, which we understand as the density of socio-historical relations, and her social time, was drawn from the literature. This is a socio-historical analysis of Florence Nightingale's life story and Charles Dickens' social literature. The time frame spanned from the enactment of the New Poor Law (1834) to the repeal (1601). Results Florence Nightingale was a woman ahead of her time who, going against the theories of social Darwinism of her time, created the nurse profession, and produced a divide in the profession by defining it as science and art. Conclusion and implications for nursing by creating the emblematic figure of the Lady of the Lamp, Florence Nightingale engraved in nursing care, zeal, devotion, and compassion, here understood as empathy and pity for the suffering of others accompanied by the desire to alleviate it, a spiritual participation in the pain of others.

"Une plus brillante moisson de citoyens sains et robustes": Eugenic Discourses in French Canada (1902-10).

The Association des médecins de langue française d'Amérique du Nord (AMLFAN) was founded in Québec at the turn of the twentieth century. The physicians who convened at the Association between 1902 and 1910 shared a concern for the degeneration of the French-Canadian "race" under the effects of alcoholism, tuberculosis, and syphilis. For hygienists such as Arthur Rousseau and Charles-Narcisse Valin, this state of degeneration called for hygienic measures that would help regenerate and improve the French-Canadian race. While their suggestion that marriages be matched scientifically in order to prevent the transmission of hereditary and acquired defects from parent to offspring may be reminiscent of eugenics, French-Canadian physicians seemed to have no knowledge of Sir Francis Galton - eugenics' "founding father" - and his work on the topic. This article compares French-Canadian eugenic discourses with Galtonian eugenics in order to shed light on the particularities of the French-Canadian case.

After Pettenkofer. Munich's Institute of Hygiene and the long shadow of National Socialism, 1894-1974.

The year 2019 marked the 140th anniversary of the inauguration of the first Institute of Hygiene, which was established for Max von Pettenkofer at the university of Munich. After Pettenkofer, his successors tried to advance the science of hygiene each in their own specific way, highlighting different aspects and trying to relate them to Pettenkofer's legacy: Max von Gruber promoted an understanding of hygiene which was more and more tied to constitutional and racial factors, Karl Kisskalt tried to revise a perceived bacteriological paradigm, and Hermann Eyer focused on preventive public health measures. All of those influences had a more or less explicit and distinct connection to the general development of German medicine in the first half of the 20th century and its culmination in National Socialist crimes. The history of Munich's Institute of Hygiene after Pettenkofer illustrates the differing scientific and ideological paths this development pursued by the examples of its three long-term protagonists and their relationship to National Socialism.

Hygiene as individual practice and as an instrument of the State. / Higiene como prática individual e como instrumento de Estado.

This study outlines some understandings of the word "hygiene." The notion that originated in ancient Greece first began to be adopted as a system of diet and morals to prolong the lifespan. From a type of self-care, this idea transformed into a concept of governance to extend the lives of subject-citizens. The theoretical debate about what public hygiene used to be shows its eminently political side: not only was hygiene a branch of the political economy, the ideas of hygienists were also analyzed as to the degree of impact they had on policy. After political and scientific battles, certain understandings of government action emerged victorious, while others were forgotten and neglected.

[From "culprits" to "victims:" the expansion and professionalization of the healthcare system in the province of Mendoza in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century]. / De "culpables" a "víctimas": expansión y profesionalización del sistema de salud en la provincia Mendoza a fines del siglo XIX y principios del XX.

From the late 19th century to the beginning of the 20th, the province of Mendoza presented problematic sanitary conditions due to rapid demographic and urban growth, the scarcity of public services, and the poor state of the old colonial city (destroyed by the 1861 earthquake), which facilitated the spread of various infectious diseases. The objective of this article is to inquire into the ways in which the healthcare system in the province of Mendoza both expanded and became increasingly professionalized from the late 19th to early 20th century. We explore how these factors, along with the predominant social representations of disease that permeated the discourses of governing elites, influenced public policy aimed at combating the diseases of the time. To that end, we consulted a wide range of written documents and photographic material that allowed us to analyze changes in discourse as well as public policy.

Entre fines del siglo XIX y comienzos del XX, la provincia de Mendoza presentaba un estado sanitario marcado por el crecimiento demográfico y urbanístico, la escasez de los servicios públicos y la destrucción de la antigua ciudad colonial como consecuencia del terremoto de 1861, lo que propiciaba un ambiente favorable para el desarrollo de diversas enfermedades infectocontagiosas. El objetivo de este artículo es indagar cómo se fue profesionalizando y expandiendo el sistema de salud en la provincia de Mendoza a fines del siglo XIX e inicios del XX, y cómo esos factores, junto con las representaciones sobre la enfermedad que predominaban en el discurso de la elite gobernante, incidieron en las políticas públicas para combatir las dolencias de la época. Para ello se consultaron diversos documentos escritos y fotográficos que permitieron analizar las modificaciones del discurso y las políticas públicas implementadas.

Higiene como prática individual e como instrumento de Estado / Hygiene as individual practice and as an instrument of the State

Resumo O estudo esboça algumas compreensões sobre a palavra "higiene". A partir do Renascimento, a ideia advinda da Grécia Antiga voltou a ser trabalhada, primeiramente como método para uma organização dietética e moral da vida que visava ao seu prolongamento. De uma espécie de cuidado de si, transformou-se em conceito de governança, cujo objetivo era o prolongamento da vida dos súditos/cidadãos. O debate teórico sobre o que era higiene pública mostra sua faceta eminentemente política: não apenas era um ramo da economia política, mas também eram analisadas as propostas dos higienistas de acordo com seu maior ou menor impacto na política. A batalha político-científica resultou na vitória de certas compreensões de ação estatal, e no esquecimento e na negligência de outras.

Abstract This study outlines some understandings of the word "hygiene." The notion that originated in ancient Greece first began to be adopted as a system of diet and morals to prolong the lifespan. From a type of self-care, this idea transformed into a concept of governance to extend the lives of subject-citizens. The theoretical debate about what public hygiene used to be shows its eminently political side: not only was hygiene a branch of the political economy, the ideas of hygienists were also analyzed as to the degree of impact they had on policy. After political and scientific battles, certain understandings of government action emerged victorious, while others were forgotten and neglected.